It's readily apparent that the nineteenth century, especially the latter half, was a seminal influence on our cities, our government bureauracies and most important, our municipal policing agencies. Our city departments entered the period as loosely knit groups of watchmen, thief catchers and town criers whose duties included lighting street lamps, cleaning alleys and serving as audible time checks for sleeping residents. The industrialization of our economy, along with the urbanization of our population and the resulting changes in social conditions fostered a radical change in American policing philosophy. Expanding and ever more diverse populations, fueled by the greatest immigration surge the nation has ever known created environmental and social problems which cities were ill equipped to address. City government decided to expand, arm and uniform their watchmen corps, and in doing so sent a message to their citizens that the elected represenatives of goverment were in charge of the streets and would take the necessary steps to police the behavior of residents.

         Eric Monkkonen cautioned historians of the inherent dangers in making the assumption that outcomes naturally follow intentions and actions. He felt that most of the impact police had on the existence of city-dwellers was the unintended consequence of having uniform officers interfering in the daily lives of American citizens. Complete with area-wide jurisdiction, the ability to communicate and twenty-four-hour coverage, the police became the dominant municpal influence in the lives of its citizens. They were also very likely to be the only city agency the average citizen would ever have occasion to deal with. Along with the Mayor and local ward leader, the police became city government. It's difficult to believe that there was no master plan which produced the ultimate result.

                              "Twelve of the 16,000 officers listed on the Law Enforcement Memorial Wall in Washington, DC"
"The wicked flee when no man pursueth
but the righteous are as bold as a lion"
-Proverbs 28: I
     Several of the historians cited in this essay noted the change in the focus of policing at the end of the 19th century and the start of the 20th century. Preventing crime and responding to crime related issues became the hot topic in the larger cities of America. The "war on crime" demanded by police reformers and President Wilson's "sacred obligations of a soldier" influenced police policy for the remainder of the millenium. As we observed, Fogelson lamented the war analogy. The police would go to war again. During prohibition they fought the war against liquor. The never ending war on vice continued. The 1960's found the police almost literally at war in the streets with students, civil rights activists and anti-war demonstrators. The 1980's and 1990's were devoted to the war on drugs. To some degree they are currently engaged in a war on terrorism. Fogelson's warning about the war mentality was prophetic, as we can understand at least "some" of the police misconduct as being attributable to the concept of "crusading" and "crusaders." Also, the current controversies surrounding the racial profiling issue force one to consider the impact of the crime prevention model of policing and the obvious necessity to focus efforts on Monkkonen's "dangerous class" of crime producers. Can we still say, as Monkkonen did, that social control is an unintended consequence of crime prevention? Police critics would say that crime prevention is the goal of efforts at social control.

         There is also an ongoing dispute within the police profession and within individual police agencies. The disagreement involves decisions related to what "model" of policing will be emphasized. Some departments engage in a process known as "community policing," an ill-defined concept with commendable goals, namely the involvement of the community in determining police priorities. The concept also calls for police to be assigned to community foot beats, mini-police stations and other visible community friendly posts. Police adminsiter social programs, especially involving youth and the elderly. One might say it is reminiscent of the soup kitchens and lodging houses maintained by 19th century police. Though extremely popular in the 1980's and 1990's, the community policing model has fallen from favor in some of the larger city departments. Usually, this is the result of disappointing crime trends or increases in the rate of overall crime.

         A better defined, and reportedly more successful and effective model has achieved prominence in the latter 1990's and early 21st century. Though it cannot be described as "new," a much more intense mode emerged in New York City in the mid-90's. Fueled by computer technology and sophisticated crime-mapping techniques, the "Compstat Process" has become the rage in most big-city American police circles. The entire Command Staff of a department will meet and discuss crime problems with district or precint commanders. They review crime causes, patterns and trends within a specific geographical area. Prevention and enforcement efforts are evaluated, crime clearances are examined, and successes and failures are reviewed at length. Commanders are given the required resources, and they are held strictly accountable for results. Priorities are determined, and decisions are made, at the local level of command, again reminiscent of 19th century policing prior to centralization. The program also calls for improved tactics and innovative deployment strategies. Included are requirements to ensure close cooperation with other department units and outside criminal justice agencies, such as the Probation and Parole offices. There has been some criticism of the Compstat Process model, mostly involving criticisms that the program calls for policing that is overly aggressive, resulting in focused efforts against minority groups which result in violations of civil liberties and other community relations problems.

                              "Twelve of the 16,000 officers listed on the Law Enforcement Memorial Wall in Washington, DC"
"The wicked flee when no man pursueth
but the righteous are as bold as a lion"
-Proverbs 28: I
         The police continue to participate in the control of demonstrations, strikes, marches and other forms of social protest. The 1960's brought a level of violence not encountered in decades. The police did not escape free of criticism of their actions and tactics. The late 1990's saw the birth of demonstrations focused on protesting global economy and world trade issues. Violence surfaced in Seattle, San Francisco, and in Philadelphia during the Republican National Convention in 2000. Again, police agencies were criticized for their response.

         Policing in America changed again on 9-11-01 with the attack on the Pentagon, Flight 93, and the World Trade Centers. Issues involving immigration and foreign nationals again became a concern of big city police departments. The response of the New York City Police Department on 9-11 resulted in the highest amount of police casualties and injuries since Chicago's Haymarket Riot. Officers now require training in disaster prevention, chemical and biological weapons, and most major city departments have established "Counter-Terrorism Bureaus." It is obvious that we cannot yet determine its impact on policing in the long term.


"World Trade Centers-9-11-01"
         In conclusion, police departments are addressing the same sorts of issues in 2003 that they encountered in the 1800's. Its also obvious that the "social control" function of police agencies remains the most important factor in the operation and survival of urban America. Whether it's directed at the dangerous or criminal class, immigrant groups or those who protest in the street, social control is still a prime police mandate. Whether the issue is crime, vice, drugs or terrorism, the police will continually be sent to "war." Whether this is indicative of Monkkonen's belief in the "unintended consequences" of police development or a nefarious plan of 19th century big city bosses, social control will continue to be the reason for the existence of the police.

"The End!!"

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